JAMB Government 1991

D: political power

A government must possess political power to make and carry out public decisions. Written constitutions, judicial independence and separation of powers are not features of every governmental system.

D: sovereignty

Sovereignty describes the state's supreme governing authority over its territory and population. Nationalism and self-determination concern political identity and collective choice rather than that authority.

C: judiciary

Case law develops through judicial decisions and the legal principles applied in them. It is therefore produced by courts, rather than by legislation or presidential action.

B: Federal systems

Two chambers are common in federal systems because they can represent both citizens and constituent units. Bicameralism provides an additional channel for regional or state interests.

C: tendencies towards secession

A confederation leaves substantial sovereignty with its member states. Weak central authority and strong member autonomy can encourage withdrawal or secession and weaken the union.

A: rigid, federal and written

The United States has a written federal constitution with a special amendment process. These features make it rigid and federal, unlike the traditional classification of the British constitution.

A: the number of people who participate in it

Oligarchy places rule in the hands of a few, while democracy gives the people a role in choosing and controlling government. This classification concerns the breadth of political participation.

C: socialist

Socialism emphasizes social ownership or control and a more equitable distribution of resources. This redistributive objective distinguishes it from the other ideological descriptions listed.

C: each branch of government acts as a watchdog over other branches

Checks and balances give each branch ways to scrutinize or restrain the others. They do not place the legislature permanently under the judiciary or allow courts to stop every executive action.

D: the cabinet stands or falls together

Collective cabinet responsibility means ministers stand together behind government policy. Loss of confidence affects the cabinet as a whole rather than only one minister.

C: recall

Recall allows eligible voters to remove an elected representative before the ordinary end of the term, under the applicable procedure. Impeachment is undertaken through institutions rather than directly by the electorate.

B: pressure groups

Pressure groups aim to influence government decisions without themselves taking control of the government. Trade unions can be one type, but pressure groups is the wider category.

D: Manpower and personnel shortages

Using existing rulers reduced the number of British officials needed to administer a large territory. Personnel shortages therefore helped make indirect rule attractive to colonial administrators.

B: non-official majority in the legislative council

The Richards Constitution provided an unofficial majority in the central legislature. Unofficial membership did not mean that every member was elected, and colonial executive control remained.

C: examine issues relating to the welfare of groups

The Willink Commission examined fears expressed by minority groups and possible constitutional safeguards. It was not primarily a revenue-allocation or boundary-drawing commission.

B: senate leader

State legislatures were Houses of Assembly and had no Senate. A Senate leader belongs to the federal upper chamber, unlike the speaker and clerk found in state assemblies.

D: The 1979 Constitution

The 1979 Constitution expressly provided for democratically elected local government councils and their functions. Local government formed the level of administration below the federal and state governments.

C: Major-general Johnson Aguiyi Ironsi

Aguiyi-Ironsi introduced the 1966 Unification Decree, replacing the federal arrangement with a unitary structure. That change was reversed after his government ended.

C: legislature and the executive

Military ruling councils commonly combine executive authority with the power to issue legislative decrees. This fuses executive and legislative functions while courts continue as a separate institutional branch.

C: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Nigeria was not an OECD member in 1991. It belonged to the Non-Aligned Movement, OPEC and the IMF, which have different purposes and membership arrangements.

C: atomic tests in the Sahara

The Balewa government severed diplomatic relations with France in protest against French atomic tests in the Sahara. The dispute was about those tests, not French policy in the Congo or Togo.

B: Ministry of External Affairs

The Ministry of External Affairs implements foreign policy through diplomatic relations, negotiations and overseas missions. The research institute advises and studies international affairs rather than serving as the responsible ministry.

C: a High Commissioner

A High Commissioner heads a diplomatic mission between Commonwealth member countries. An ambassador is the corresponding usual title outside that Commonwealth relationship, while an attaché has a specialized role.

C: espionage

Diplomatic missions may gather information by lawful means and protect their country's interests and nationals. Espionage is not a recognized lawful diplomatic function, even though information gathering is.

D: economically

ECOWAS was founded principally to promote economic cooperation and integration among West African states. Its later work also covers political and security matters, but these do not erase the founding economic aim.

D: Togo

Togo and Nigeria led the initiative culminating in the establishment of ECOWAS. Their leaders promoted consultations among West African governments before the 1975 treaty.

C: Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe was not independent when the OAU was founded in 1963 and joined after independence in 1980. Tanganyika, the predecessor mainland state of Tanzania, was among the founders.

C: promoting world peace and security

The UN was established to maintain international peace and security and support cooperation. It was not designed to turn all member countries into a single world federation.